The vertical sides of the slab shouldn't be on show like that. It should of been strip foundations with brickwork showing from ground level up to the top of the slab..
It would probably be strong enough, but a bit of a botch..
You put the foundation blocks on the concrete, so both are needed. Concrete blocks don't need rendering, but if they are seen they need to be laid neatly and jointed..
To answer your last question I would sit the lintel on the next course higher than the frame, and get the window fitters to use an add-on to the top of the frame... say 25mm or so.
The easiest way would be to knock of the top course of internal brick, and line the cavity with visqueen, and fill with concrete level to the top of your floorboards. I wouldn't worry about the thermal issue...
A gap is left to make it easier to run cables/pipes behind, and so the flooring can sit on it, without the plaster covering the joist, but isn't essential. I'd just skew nail the joist & fit your hanger the best you can.. pack between the wall & joist when fitting the strutting.