I was editing - see better reference.
4.2 ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND OVERHEATING Lomas 490 Buildings and Cities It is frequently suggested that increasing the insulation levels of homes exacerbates overheating. However, some reporters mistake correlation for causation. Field studies have shown that there was no significant difference in the incidence of overheating with the presence, or otherwise, of cavity wall or loft or other insulation measures. Whilst dwellings with a good energy efficiency rating overheated significantly more than less efficient homes, this could be because they were also significantly more likely to be flats.
4.1 WHY DO FLATS OVERHEAT? Generic factors that lead to overheating can be readily identified; flats are often smaller than other dwellings, more densely occupied and have a reduced external surface area through which ventilation can be provided. On higher floors windows are less shaded by surrounding urban features, and top-floor flats are exposed to the sun-heated roof above. In addition to these solar gains, internal heat gains arise from the activities of the flat’s occupants and from surrounding f lats and common circulation areas. The hot air created on lower floors rises, making overheating on the higher floors even more likely. Cities pose particular problems. The urban heat island can elevate night-time temperature 5–10 K above the surroundings, thus it reduces the benefits of night-time ventilation cooling. Land prices in cities are high and so are construction costs, so the pressure to reduce construction time and complexity is acute. Off-site construction is seen as one way to reduce costs, but in its extreme form, the stacked, flat-faced boxes can suffer from chronic and extreme overheating (Quigley & Lomas 2018). In addition to the generic factors, design is important. Flats are often single aspect and relatively deep plan. In this situation, only single-sided ventilation is possible, which is much less effective than cross-ventilation. Flats may have large glazed areas to help ‘off-set’ the gloom of deep plan designs, but when facing towards the south and west these exacerbate overheating risks. Whilst external shading reduces solar heat gain, it also adds construction cost and complexity. ‘Business-as-usual’ windows and patio doors can be difficult for some people to operate, and security, pollution and noise concerns may deter their use. On higher floors window opening may be deliberately limited to roughly 100 mm on safety grounds. Hot water, piped from a central, communal heating plant, can be a permanent source of uncontrolled heat, and poorly designed and installed mechanical ventilation systems can actually contribute to overheating (McLeod & Swainson 2016). It is not only new flats that overheat. Monitoring revealed that the living rooms in 30% of all English flats overheated in the summer of 2018 compared with 12% for all other dwelling types (Lomas et al. 2021). Retrofit can alleviate problems, but poorly conceived remodelling might turn a habitable apartment building into one with flats that overheat (Baborska-Narożny et al. 2017)
